Greece and Rome

Following the end of the Trojan war, new nations would find opportunities to rise. The Greeks annexed the western states of Turkey, while a powerful tribe from the eastern Balkans, who were known as the Phrygians , annexed the former Hittite empire, in the central part of the country.

Although the Greeks mainly worshiped male war-gods, they allowed the people of Turkey to continue to observe their own religious traditions. Indeed, this was a time of great innovation in Greek religion... it marks the end of their second pantheon, the Titans , and the beginning of their third and final pantheon, the Olympians , who were partly composed of foreign deities. For example, both Artemis and Apollo were imported from Turkey, along with Cybele, who was sometimes identified with Hera.

Even the name "Cybele" comes to us from the Greeks. On the central west coast of Turkey (which was the primary area of the Greek colonies) the Great Mother was known as Kubaba. The Greeks translated that into Kybebe, and the Romans later translated it into Cybele... the modern name that we now use.

During most of the first millinnium, Greece, and Greek culture, became the dominant force in the western world. This period is also characterized by the growing power of Persia, and a number of wars in which they alternately conquered the Near and Middle East, and then were driven out again. From the standpoint of religion, the worship of the Great Mother Goddess generally prospered and expanded, as a result of Greek and Phrygian patronage.

One of the most fascinating and impressive qualities of the religion was the ability of some of our Priestesses, who were known as Sibyls , to receive prophetic communications from the Goddess, through dreams or in a state of trance. Exactly when this practice began is uncertain, however we find reference to it from very early times, for example in the Mari tablets , which date to around 1800 BCE.

The Greeks were especially interested in the concept of prophecy, and maintained some seven major temples in the region of the Aegean Sea that had Sibyls. Typically, the Sibyl was served by her own staff of Priestesses from the temple of Cybele, and supervised another group of Priestesses, known as the Oracles, who worked at a nearby temple dedicated to Apollo.

The Oracles of Apollo issued the more mundane and relatively unimportant prophecies to the common people, whereas the Sibyl remained in isolation or prophesied only for higher ranking persons such as wealthy patrons, military and political leaders, etc.

Although Apollo is often thought to be a Greek deity, he actually originated in Turkey before 1300 BCE. The Turks called him Apaliunas , and his subordinate relationship to Cybele strongly suggests that he was created by Cybele's Priestesses. In his role as a god of prophecy, Apollo (and the Oracles) were apparently intended to act as a buffer, to prevent the masses of ordinary people from making excessive demands on the Sibyl herself.

Most of the Sibyls were of Turkish origin, as were the Priestesses who served them. The Greeks gave these Priestesses the amusing name of "Melissae", which means "honey bees", and indeed, they seemed to swarm about the temple in a state of constant activity, much like bees around a hive.

Inside the temple, on a raised pedestal, would be found a large statue of Cybele. In the back of the statue there would usually be a small hollow area where a meteorite would be kept. Since meteorites had fallen from the heavens, they were strongly associated with the Goddess... therefore, placing a meteorite inside the statue was believed to animate it, and connect it more directly to Her.

The daily life of a Priestess was full and happy. When not occupied with the performance of rituals, or the general duties of the temple, she would spend her time in artistic ways, such as the making of jewelry, usually from silver, with gemstones such as sapphire and jet. In addition, they composed poetry and music, made wine, and hosted parties for their local followers and supporters.

An interesting practice of the Sibyls was to disguise themselves as a peasant, and travel around the countryside, in order to gain insight into the mood and feelings of the common people. This earned them a very favorable reputation, by demonstrating their concern for their followers, and showed that they possessed both the humility and courage to do something like that.

The temple complex at Delphi , in central Greece, was one of the most famous locations to have a Sibyl. It had been in use for religious rites since Neolithic times, although the first Sibyl did not actually arrive from Turkey until about 1300 BCE.

At first, the Sibyls of Delphi worked alone... and consequently they were not able to keep up with the demands of the common people, and prophesied only for the rich and powerful. Eventually, around 800 BCE, they adopted the solution already in use in Turkey, and added a temple of Apollo, with a staff of Priestesses to serve as Oracles. This enabled them to issue an adaquet number of prophecies to meet the needs of the ordinary people.

The accuracy of the prophecies of the Sibyls of Delphi was legendary, and some of the stories are really quite fascinating... the story of Codrus , King of Athens, is a good example.

In 1068 BCE, when the Dorians were invading Greece, they paused at Delphi to inquire as to what the outcome of their attack would be, and were told that provided that the King of Athens himself was not harmed, they would be successful and would rule the land. But if Codrus were to be killed, they would suffer a terrible defeat.

Word of the prophecy reached Codrus, and after disguising himself as a peasant (much like the Sibyl herself was known to do), he made his way to the Dorian encampment, where he deliberately provoked a quarrel with a group of soldiers and was killed. As soon as the Dorians realized that they had killed the King of Athens, they reversed their course and retreated from the country as quickly as possible. So great was their belief in the prophecy, that Codrus was able to save his entire nation by simply sacrificing his own life.

Codrus was the last King of Athens. His people decided that no one could possibly be worthy to succeed him, and so the title of King was abolished and the title of Archon was substituted for it. The first Archon of Athens was Codrus's son, who ordered the renovation of the old temple complex at Erythrae , on the central west coast of Turkey.

The Great Mother had been worshipped at Erythrae for thousands of years before the Greek renovation. When the new temples were completed in about 1000 BCE, they followed a pattern that was to become typical... the Sibyl was served by her Priestesses from the temple of Cybele, and supervised the Oracles, who worked at a nearby temple dedicated to Apollo.

The island of Samos , located near the southwest coast of Turkey, was home to another famous Sibyl. The Great Mother had also been worshipped there long before the Greeks took over the temple complex, around 1000 BCE. They rebuilt the main temple on three occasions, until it ultimately became one of the largest in the ancient world. The temple was officially dedicated to Hera, which was a name used for the Great Mother by Greeks from the area of Argos. As usual, the Sibyl supervised a group of Oracles, who worked at a nearby temple of Apollo.

Concerning the Persian Sibyl, once located somewhere in northern Iraq, very little is known. The exact location of the temple complex has been lost to us, although it certainly existed long before the Greeks arrived. We are told that when under Greek control it consisted of the usual arrangement, with the Sibyl supervising the Oracles at the temple of Apollo. Perhaps archeologists will one day discover the remains of these temples, and we shall be able to learn more about them.

The Libyan Sibyl was located at the Siwa Oasis , in the Libyan desert... which is in the western part of modern-day Egypt. Again, very little is known about this Sibyl, beyond the fact that she supervised the Oracles who in this case worked at the temple of Zeus-Amon. It is said that Alexander the Great once inquired of the Libyan Sibyl concerning his right to rule Egypt, and she wisely advised him that he was divinely selected to do so.

The Hellespontine Sibyl (also referred to as the Sibyl of Troy) was located in the town of Dardania, on Mount Ida, near Troy, on the west coast of Turkey. The temple complex was built in about 700 BCE, and it followed the usual pattern. The first Sibyl of Troy wrote the Sibylline Books , in about 650 BCE. These books were a collection of prophecies about great world events, which would have a profound effect on the history of the religion of Cybele, and the Roman empire.

The Cumaean Sibyl resided in the temple complex at Cumae , near Naples, Italy. This was originally a Greek colony, built around 900 BCE, which consisted of the usual arrangement of a temple of Cybele next to a temple of Apollo. In this case we know that there was a beautiful underground palace for the Sibyl, which today is open to the general public.

The entrance to the palace is located 75 feet up the side of Mount Cumae. The narrow passage is over 400 feet long, and trapezoidal... an ingenious design that is earthquake resistant. It is illuminated by a series of windows cut through the rock on either side. The main chamber has a 60 foot high ceiling, with six galleries that open onto the sea, providing ventilation. Passages lead to the Sibyl's audience chamber, as well as to Mount Avernus, with its ancient volcanic crater, and to a set of fresh water cisterns. The palace is also equipped with natural geo-thermal heating and hot springs. Paintings, tapestries and mosaics presumably once decorated the floors and walls, while statues and other objects of art must have been present in abundance.

Between the year 650 and 530 BCE, the Sibylline Books were moved to Erythrae, and then to Cumae. When the Sibyl of Cumae decided to sell them to the last King of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus , in about 530 BCE, there were 9 books in the set. At first the King refused to buy them, so the Sibyl began to burn them. After she had burned 6 of them, the King relented, and purchased the remaining 3 volumes for an astronomical price.

The books were kept under guard, supervised by Priestesses from the temple of Cybele and the temple of Apollo. Thus, possession of the books, which referred to religious practices and rites that the senators of Rome were not familiar with, prompted them to learn many details about the religion. This paved the way for the future entry of Cybele into Rome.

The books were consulted on numerous occasions over the centuries, to obtain advice in dealing with earthquakes, pestilence and plagues. Finally, in about 200 BCE, Rome was under heavy attack by the forces of Hannibal , and the Sibylline Books were consulted again. The Books prophesied that if Rome would accept the worship of Cybele as an official state religion, Hannibal would be defeated, and they would be saved. At the same time as this was announced to the Roman Senate, a message arrived from the Oracle of Delphi, stating exactly the same thing.

The Senate therefore adopted the religion of Cybele as an official religion of Rome, and Hannibal was defeated, just as the prophecies had foretold. A temple for Cybele was built on Palatine Hill in Rome, and Her religion spread throughout the empire. Consequently, for the next 500 years, the worship of Cybele was one of the most popular religions in the known world, and Her Sibyls and Oracles would continue to prophesy for Kings and Emperors alike.

In addition to the locations already mentioned, temples of Cybele also existed at the following cities in Turkey: Ephesus, Sardis, Didyma, Priene, Aizani, Smyrna, Magnesia, Hierapolis, Claros, Phocaea, Pergamon, Gordium, Pessinus, and on the islands on Delos, Lesbos and Chios. Of course temples would later also be found in Greece, Italy, Bulgaria, Germany, France, England, Egypt, and throughout the Middle East.

There were several other significant developments in the religion of Cybele, during the first millennium, that deserve mention. One was the the so-called "mystery cult" , which was based at a temple complex on the island of Samothrace , in the northern Aegean. This can best be described as a center for advanced learning, which enabled people to attain a more prestigious position among the followers of the religion. It took the form of a series of initiations, each of which was said to result in some type of special enlightenment or benefit.

The building of the temple complex was begun around 700 BCE by the Greeks, and was expanded over time by others, including the Phrygians and the Romans. It was visited by many powerful patrons over the centuries, such as Philip of Macedonia, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Hadrian, etc. all of whom were initiated.

Unlike other mystery schools, the temple complex was open to all. Persons of every social status and rank mixed freely and were treated as equals while there. Temples for other Mother Goddess archetypes such as Hecate, Demeter and Aphrodite were also present, and offered their own mystery rituals of various types. In addition, in mid-July a very popular special festival was held, which featured numerous sacred dance and theatre events.

Initiations into the mysteries of Cybele were given whenever an applicant presented themself. In the first stage, simply called "the myesis" ("the mysteries") certain secrets and symbols were revealed to the applicant, and they were given certain protective talismans such as a red sash, or a ring made from magnetic iron that was found on the island.

The second stage was called "the epopteia" ("the contemplation") and required the applicant to make a public confession of their misbehaviors, followed by an absolution and a ritual cleansing. The applicant was then required to stand on a platform and recite the doctrine of the religion, while displaying the objects that they had received during the myesis.

Little is known about the third stage, other than that it involved some type of a transcendental experience, induced by the use of hallucinogenic substances which the Priestesses produced from various local plants and mushrooms. Excavations now in progress are yielding a wealth of artifacts, and hopefully more information will soon become available.

Another significant development concerns the addition of a deity called Attis to the religion of Cybele, around 600 BCE, at the city of Pessinus. There are several theories about the reason for this... some feel that a male deity was desired, in order to better compete with the other religions of the time. Yet another view is that Attis was a deified version of a Priest who had once been in charge of the temple at Pessinus, and was especially well-regarded.

In any case, the character of Attis was unique to the city of Pessinus, and might have quietly vanished into the mists of time, had it not been for the rather unfortunate fact that when the Romans adopted the religion of Cybele, they happened to take it from Pessinus... and therefore, Attis was included. This ultimately resulted in some serious problems for the religion, which we will discuss in more detail in the next chapter.